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Vesicoureteral reflux is defined as the retrograde flow of urine from the bladder into the ureter and collecting system. Children who have a urinary tract infection (UTI) have a 45% incidence of vesicoureteral reflux. The incidence increases with decreasing age, and 65% of patients are females. However, in a male who has a UTI, the risk of reflux.
Pathophysiology
Vesicoureteral reflux may cause renal parenchymal injury, including segmental scarring, global renal atrophy, and
Pregnancy may exacerbate already compromised renal function caused by reflux nephropathy.
Diagnosis
Radiologic evaluation should be undertaken when a urinary tract infection occurs in one of the following patients:
UTI in a male
UTI in an infant (under two years of age)
Pyelonephritis in a female
Recurrent UTI in a female
Radiologic evaluation of the child with a urinary tract infection consists of a renal ultrasound and a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG). If the child is not toxic, the VCUG and renal ultrasound should be done three weeks after initiation of antibiotics for UTI. However, if the child is toxic or hospitalized, the ultrasound should be done promptly in order to exclude the presence of an obstructive uropathy, which requires prompt urological intervention.
Grading
Grade I reflux is defined as retrograde urine flow into a non-dilated ureter.
Grade II reflux refers to the filling of a non-dilated ureter and a non-dilated renal pelvis.
Grade III reflux consists of dilatation of the collecting system, but the fornices remain sharp.
Grade IV reflux consists of blunted fornices.
Grade V reflux bladder is defined as massive dilatation and tortuosity of the collecting system.
Medical Management
Most cases of are managed nonoperatively with attention to perineal hygiene, normalization of bowel and voiding habits, and
Diaper rashes and chemical irritants such as bubble bath should be discouraged because they predispose to UTIs. Children should avoid harsh soaps, shampoos, and tub baths. If constipation is a problem, stool softeners and
Prophylactic Antibiotics
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is the most commonly used drug, given in a dose of 2mg/kg of trimethoprim plus 10mg/kg of sulfamethoxazole orally once a day before bedtime. Adverse reactions may include Stevens Johnson syndrome, allergies, and blood dyscrasias.
For the newborn, penicillin or ampicillin are preferred for
Suppression continues until the reflux resolves spontaneously or until surgery is