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Enteroviruses (polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses) are among the most common and significant causes of infectious illness in infants and children. They are associated with a broad spectrum of clinical syndromes, including aseptic meningitis, herpangina, hand-foot-mouth disease, conjunctivitis, pleurodynia, myopericarditis, poliomyelitis, various exanthems, and nonspecific febrile illness. In the neonate, enteroviral infection can cause a sepsis-like picture or meningoencephalitis, either of which can be severe. Newer technologies such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may provide rapid and sensitive testing methods for diagnosis of enteroviral infections, which may expand the list of diseases attributable to this group of pathogens. Although treatment of enteroviral infections remains unsatisfactory, immunization against poliovirus has been remarkably successful, and new immunization regimens using live and killed virus vaccines have been developed.
The enteroviruses are a subgroup of single-stranded RNA, non-enveloped viruses belonging to the Picornaviradae family (pico=small, RNA=ribonucleic acid). They include the polioviruses, coxsackie-viruses, echoviruses (echo=enteric cytopathogenic human orphan), and unclassified
Enteroviruses are commonly referred to as "summer viruses" because resulting infections occur primarily during the warmer, summer months (May through October) in temperate northern
| GROUP | SEROTYPES |
|---|---|
| Poliovirus | 1-3 |
| Coxsackievirus group A | 1-22, 24 |
| Coxsackievirus group B | 1-6 |
| Echovirus | 1-9, 11-27, 29-33 |
| Enterovirus | 68-72 * |
The incubation period for most enteroviral infections ranges from 3 to 10 days. The virus enters the host via the oral cavity and/or respiratory tract, then invades and replicates in the upper respiratory tract and small intestine, with a predilection for lymphoid tissues in these regions (Peyer patches,
Nonpolio enteroviruses are estimated to cause 10 to 15 million symptomatic infections in the United States annually. They cause a wide spectrum of disease that can involve almost any organ system (Table 3) . Disease severity can range from life-threatening with significant morbidity to mild or
The most common clinical presentation of nonpolio enterovirus infection is a nonspecific febrile illness. Typically, fever develops suddenly, without a prodrome, and temperatures range from 38.5° to 40°C (101° to 104°F) and last for an average of 3 days. Occasionally, a biphasic pattern of symptoms can
Nonpolio enteroviruses are the leading causes of aseptic meningitis, accounting for 80% to 90% of all cases from which an etiologic agent is identified. The most common enterovirus types associated with
| SYNDROME | PREDOMINANT VIRUS | CLINICAL FEATURES |
|---|---|---|
| Nonspecific febrile illness | All types | Febrile illness (occasionally biphasic), with non-specific upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tract symptoms |
| Aseptic meningitis | Echovirus and group B coxsackieviruses | Fever, meningeal signs with mild cerebrospinal (CSF) pleocytosis, usually normal CSF glucose and protein, and absence of bacteria |
| Herpangina | Group A coxsackieviruses | Fever, painful oral vesicles on tonsils and posterior pharynx |
| Hand-foot-mouth disease | Coxsackievirus A16 | Fever, vesicles on buccal mucosa and tongue and on interdigital surfaces of hands and feet |
| Nonspecific exanthem | Echoviruses | Variable rash (usually rubelliform but may be petechial or vesicular), +/- fever |
| Pleurodynia | Coxsackievirus B3, B5 | Uncommon, epidemic, fever, and severe muscle pain of chest and abdomen |
| Carditis | Group B coxsackievirus | Uncommon, myocarditis/pericarditis, which can present with heart failure or dysrhythmia |
| Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis | Enterovirus 70 | Epidemic cause of conjunctivitis with lid swelling, subconjunctival hemorrhage, and eye pain without systemic symptoms |
| Neonatal disease | Group B coxsackieviruses and echoviruses | Sepsis-like picture, meningoencephalitis, hepatitis, myocarditis |
Herpangina is an enanthemous (mucous membrane) disease characterized by a painful vesicular eruption of the oral mucosa associated with fever, sore throat, and pain on swallowing. It is seen most commonly in children ages 3 to 10 years. Group A coxsackieviruses are the most common etiologic agents, but group B coxsackie-viruses and echoviruses also have been isolated from patients.
Lymphonodular pharyngitis, a variant of herpangina, presents similarly but differs in the appearance of the oral lesions, which are tiny, firm, white nodules (packed with lymphocytes) in the same distribution.
The differential diagnosis for herpangina is discussed in the next section.
HFM disease is characterized clinically by a vesicular eruption on the hands and feet and in the oral cavity. Toddlers and school-age children are affected most commonly. Coxsackie-virus A16 is the primary etiologic agent, but other enteroviruses have been implicated as well.
The differential diagnosis for hand-foot-mouth disease includes infection by herpes simplex or varicella-zoster virus, herpangina, and aphthous stomatitis. In contrast to HFM, varicella lesions are located more centrally, are more extensive, and usually spare the palms and soles. Additionally, resolution of varicella lesions involves crusting, whereas HFM vesicles resolve by resorption of fluid. In herpetic gingivostomatitis, patients usually appear more ill, may have gingival erythema or bleeding, present with higher temperatures, and exhibit significant cervical lymphadenopathy and lesions confined to the oral cavity without extremity involvement. These findings may help distinguish herpetic stomatitis from HFM. Herpangina also may resemble HFM, but the herpangina oral lesions usually are located in the posterior aspects of the pharynx; the extremities are spared. Aphthous stomatitis is a common problem.